Research Overview
1965-1971
My initial studies were proximal explanations for the reproductive behavior of rats and dogs. The setting was the laboratory for the rodents work and an enclosure in the field for studying dogs. The first of nine papers, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, was most important and it led to numerous follow-up studies by my collaborators. This period was intellectually stimulating but unsatisfying; I wanted to study animals where they lived.
1968-1978
I begin my first studies of pinnipeds and elephant seals in nature. We tag over 17,000 elephant seals at their eight rookeries in California and Mexico, their entire breeding range, which yields information on migration patterns and the population status. We begin fundamental studies of elephant seals describing their polygynous mating system, the details of sexual behavior and maternal behavior, pup mortality on the rookery, the presence of dialects from one rookery to the next, and the method of marking individuals and immobilizing them. We encounter unexpected events such as fur seals breeding on San Miguel Island, oily seals from a Channel Islands oil spill, High DDT values and dead premature pups in California sea lions, and the movement of seals between islands. We got off to a fast start, getting National Science Foundation funding and publishing 35 papers, three in Science magazine and two in Nature.
1977-1985
Key studies are conducted on elephant seal development, female competition, feeding habits, pup adoption, and shark predation. We set up the viewing and visiting program for tourists at Año Nuevo State Park and edited a book to serve as training for the guides in the classroom and in the field (see Books). A highlight of this period is a large contract, 1975-1979, on the marine mammals and birds of Southern California Bight Area in southern California. The first physiological studies are conducted on the energetics of lactation. Many physiological studies follow (see 1976-2023).
1986-1994
We began studies of the diving behavior of elephant seals. A most successful collaboration with Yasuhiko Naito and his Japanese colleagues was initiated in 1988 and continues in 2025. For example, 25 papers are first authored by Japanese collaborators. These studies address topics such as swim speed, diving effort, sex differences, dive types, prey consumed, and prey type and abundance in foraging areas. Other research papers on elephant seals address low genetic variation, effects of El Niños on foraging, molt energetics, sleep apnea to minimize water loss, and reproductive effort. A study is conducted on the unusual mating system of southern sea lions in Patagonia, which involves group raids.
1994-2000
I co-edit a book on elephant seals with Richard Laws (see Books) which contains chapters by experts on updates of key issues such as the history of the two species, juvenile survivorship, reproductive effort, development of diving, and so on. A key monograph on the foraging ecology of both sexes is published. Other papers address ocean temperatures to which the seals are exposed, predator avoidance, sounds received on seals at sea, homing behavior, and effects of buoyancy on diving behavior. Additional studies of southern elephant seals in Patagonia, Argentina, are conducted.
2000-2005
Stand out studies during this period include blood flow during forced dives as determined by magnetic resonance imaging, showing the interplay between blood storage in the spleen and modulation of blood flow by the hepatic sinus during dives. Another key study shows that diving elephant seals collect key oceanographic data on conductivity and temperature at depth for a fraction of the price of using CTDs and costly ship time. Other studies are made on shark predation, 3D movements during diving, additional genetic studies, high DDT in sea lions, and causes of gray whale mortality. I retire (from field work), take on the position of Vice Chancellor for Research (VCR), and later, Associate VCR, become a principal in a large contract of my university with NASA Ames which continues to 2015.
2006-2025
Removed from hands-on research, I spend much time writing. I write three books and co-edit another (see Books). A key paper is published on the lifetime reproductive success of females; it is based on tracking 7,735 females throughout their lives and took 42 years to complete. Other papers address lifetime survival and senescence, estimates of the number of breeding females, the colonization process, the rise and fall of dialects, and elephant seals as sentinels of the health of the ecosystem in which they feed. I am currently writing a paper on the critical importance of blubber in the life of elephant seals.
1976-2023
During this period, over 200 papers dealing with elephant seal physiology were published. The research addressed concentrates mainly on milk energetics, fasting during lactation, fasting in males during over 100 days while fighting and competing to mate, fasting during the molt, metabolizing fat (blubber) as the means of acquiring energy and water during fasting, water conservation mechanisms such as sleep apnea. I have had little to do with most of this research but the background research and long-term study of individual elephant seals which I started and managed for years, including a huge database, aides and serves as a basis for much of this research. See the book The Quest for Darwinian Fitness for details.
Research Administration
From 2003 to 2014 I was chief scientific director for NASA Ames' University Affiliated Research Center (UARC), a 10-year, three hundred million dollar contract overseen by the University of California at Santa Cruz. The UARC conducted directed research in all the mission areas of NASA Ames. In this capacity, I worked to coordinate and enhance programs across discipline areas in addition to developing collaborative research initiatives with the UC System campuses. I managed the UARC's Aligned Research Program (ARP) which made grants to UC faculty for research aligned with the NASA Ames mission in disciplines such as: aerospace systems, information technology, biotechnology, earth sciences, robotics/sensors, space science, exoplanet research, astrobiology, computer storage and security, material science, and nano-science. Research proposals were reviewed and approximately $500,000 was awarded annually to 10 to 15 grantees.